![]() In addition, there is a growing body of studies on defenses such as repressive coping in response to medical conditions (e.g., cancer, Di Guiseppe et al., 2021). On the other hand, defenses that target the self, either by providing a sense of omnipotence and devaluating others characterize a narcissistic personality. For example, defenses that act by distorting one’s image of self and others (e.g., splitting) and preventing experiences from being connected to one another or known (e.g., dissociation and repression) characterize borderline personality. In the clinical realm, research has also shown clear relationships between certain defenses and personality disorders (Perry et al., 2013). For example, defenses predict problematic internet use (Vally et al., 2020). Within the subclinical population, defenses are a significant indicator of everyday escapism behaviour. Several recent studies have demonstrated defenses' clinical usefulness and extensive predictive value. The construct of defense mechanisms is a relevant study topic in both subclinical and clinical populations. Contemporary researchers also generally regard defense mechanisms as individuals' relatively stable, enduring characteristics (Prunas et al., 2019). Psychological defenses are now typically defined as mechanisms that mediate the individual's response to emotional conflicts and external stressors (DSM-5, APA, 2013). Over time, the study of defense mechanisms has remained an important topic in behavioural science, particularly in personality and interpersonal behaviour (Cramer, 1998). Bowlby ( 1980), in turn, developed a model of defense within the framework of his attachment theory. The concept of psychological defense mechanisms emerged from the psychoanalytic literature in the late nineteenth century, beginning with Sigmund Freud ( 1894), and followed by Anna Freud ( 1937/2018). Traditionally, psychological defenses are patterns of emotions, thoughts, or behaviours that are relatively involuntary, "unconscious" coping processes (Cramer, 2015 Vaillant, 2020). The discussion also considers the clinical application and relevance to attachment-based psychotherapy. We discuss the significance of this concerning the future of the empirical study of psychological defenses. One implication of this study is that the two-dimensional model of adult attachment may offer a promising framework for organizing psychological defenses. Overall, the results indicate that attachment-anxiety is a significant predictor of global defensive functioning, over and above that of attachment-avoidance. Regarding the main findings, attachment-avoidance uniquely predicted defensive isolation, and attachment-anxiety uniquely predicted the defenses splitting, projective identification, anticipation, acting out, passive-aggression, reaction formation, and undoing. The results show that the two dimensions of insecure attachment exhibit different defensive patterns. In this study of online questionnaire design ( N = 250), university undergraduates aged between 17 to 65 completed the Experiences in Close Relationship Scale (ECR) and the Defense Style Questionnaire (DSQ-60). The main objective was to understand what differentiates attachment-avoidance and attachment-anxiety in defensive functioning. To address this research gap, the current study aimed to assess the character defenses associated with attachment-avoidance and attachment-anxiety, incorporating a broad spectrum of psychological defenses. However, to date, no study has comprehensively examined the basic patterns of specific defense expression in the two dimensions of attachment insecurity (anxiety/avoidance). Contemporary attachment researchers claim that attachment-anxiety is associated with a hyperactivating defense strategy while attachment-avoidance is associated with a deactivating defense strategy.
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